ACADEMIC READING TEST-1

Crop-growing skyscrapers

Vertical Farming: A farming method where crops are grown in multi-storey buildings with controlled environmental conditions. Example: The Vertical Farm concept aims to address the growing demand for food in urban areas.
Urban Centres: Highly populated areas characterized by dense human habitation and infrastructure. Example: New technologies are needed to support the increasing population in urban centres.
Demographic Trends: The statistical study of populations, including patterns of birth, death, and migration. Example: Understanding demographic trends is crucial for future urban planning.
Hectares: A unit of measurement equal to 10,000 square meters. Example: The Vertical Farm requires several hectares of land for its construction.
Sustainable Production: Environmentally friendly and economically viable methods of producing goods. Example: Vertical farming aims to achieve sustainable production of food throughout the year.
Ecozones: Regions characterized by distinctive ecological conditions, including climate and vegetation. Example: The rapid expansion of agriculture has impacted natural ecozones, turning some into semi-arid deserts.
Despoiled: To damage or ruin the quality or appearance of something. Example: Over the years, human activities have despoiled many natural landscapes.
Semi-Arid: Having a climate or region that is partially dry, with limited rainfall. Example: The expansion of agriculture has turned some ecozones into semi-arid regions.
Ecosystems: A community of living organisms and their interactions with each other and their environment. Example: Vertical farming aims to contribute to the repair of ecosystems damaged by horizontal farming practices.
Rigours: Harsh and demanding conditions or challenges. Example: Food-bearing plants are often subjected to the rigours of unpredictable weather.
Monsoons: Seasonal winds accompanied by heavy rainfall, especially in South and Southeast Asia. Example: Severe monsoons can cause extensive damage to crops and infrastructure.
Infectious Diseases: Illnesses caused by pathogenic microorganisms that can spread from person to person. Example: Vertical farming aims to reduce the incidence of infectious diseases related to agriculture.
Herbicides: Chemical substances used to control or destroy plants, especially weeds. Example: Vertical farming eliminates the need for herbicides by promoting organic cultivation.
Pesticides: Chemical substances used to kill or control pests. Example: The use of pesticides can be eliminated through organic farming methods.
Fertilisers: Substances added to soil or plants to promote growth and increase fertility. Example: Vertical farming promotes the use of organic practices, reducing reliance on chemical fertilisers.
Methane Generation: The production of methane, often as a byproduct of organic material decomposition. Example: Vertical farms aim to contribute to energy generation through methane produced from composting.
Fossil Fuel Use: The consumption of non-renewable energy sources, such as coal, oil, and natural gas. Example: Vertical farming aims to reduce fossil fuel use by eliminating the need for traditional farming machinery.
Overhead Light: Natural or artificial illumination from above. Example: Single-storey greenhouses benefit from natural overhead light, enhancing plant growth.
Renewable Energy: Energy derived from sources that are naturally replenished, such as sunlight or wind. Example: The feasibility of vertical farming depends on the availability of cheap, renewable energy.
Rails: Tracks or bars on which something, like trays or vehicles, can move. Example: Stacked trays on rails enable plants to receive sufficient sunlight in vertical farming.
Proponents: Supporters or advocates of a particular idea, concept, or cause. Example: Proponents of vertical farming argue that it is a sustainable solution to food production challenges.
Aspiration: A strong desire or ambition to achieve something. Example: The aspiration for sustainable agriculture drives research in innovative farming methods.
Detrimental Impact: Harmful or damaging effects on a particular situation or system. Example: More efforts are needed to minimize the detrimental impact of vertical farming on the environment.
As Regards: In relation to or concerning a particular topic. Example: Consideration must be given to environmental concerns as regards the implementation of vertical farming.
Artificial Lighting: Illumination provided by human-made sources, such as electric lights. Example: Vertical farming faces challenges in providing adequate artificial lighting for optimal plant growth.
Variations: Different forms or types within a broader category. Example: Various variations of vertical farming are being explored to improve its efficiency.
Greenhouse: A structure with transparent walls and roof, used for growing plants in a controlled environment. Example: Traditional greenhouses provide controlled conditions for plant growth, but vertical farms take it to a new level.
Undoubted Problems: Issues or challenges that are unquestionably present or acknowledged. Example: Vertical farming seeks to address the undoubted problems associated with traditional agricultural practices.
Urban Rooftops: The tops of buildings in urban areas. Example: Experts consider utilizing urban rooftops as potential spaces for future food production.
Human Habitation: The act of living or dwelling in a particular place. Example: Vertical farming aims to support increasing human habitation in urban centers by providing locally grown food.
Innovative: Introducing new ideas, methods, or technologies; characterized by creativity. Example: Vertical farming requires innovative solutions to meet the challenges of sustainable food production.
Feasibility: The likelihood of something being successful or achievable. Example: The feasibility of vertical farming depends on factors like energy availability and cost-effectiveness.
Mitigate: To lessen the severity or impact of something. Example: Efforts should be made to mitigate the environmental impact of vertical farming.
Resilience: The ability to recover from or adapt to challenges and setbacks. Example: Vertical farming systems need to demonstrate resilience in the face of changing environmental conditions.
Optimum: The best or most favorable conditions or degree. Example: Vertical farms aim to provide optimum growing conditions for crops throughout the year.
Unprecedented: Never before seen or experienced; without precedent. Example: The scale-up of indoor farming to feed billions is an unprecedented challenge that requires innovative solutions.
Sustainability: The ability to maintain or support over the long term without causing harm to the environment or depleting resources. Example: Vertical farming strives for sustainability by minimizing resource use and environmental impact.
Infrastructure: The basic physical and organizational structures and facilities needed for the operation of a society. Example: Urban centers require robust infrastructure to support the growing population.
Composting: The process of decomposing organic material into nutrient-rich soil. Example: Methane generation from composting is one way vertical farming contributes to energy production.
Viability: The ability to work successfully or be effective. Example: Assessing the economic viability of vertical farming is crucial for its widespread adoption.
Monoculture: The cultivation of a single type of crop in a large area. Example: Vertical farming aims to avoid the pitfalls of monoculture through diverse and controlled growing conditions.
Alleviate: To make a situation or condition less severe or more bearable. Example: Vertical farming could help alleviate food shortages in densely populated urban areas.
Aeroponics: A method of growing plants without soil, using a nutrient-rich mist to deliver nutrients directly to plant roots. Example: Aeroponics is a technique explored in vertical farming for efficient nutrient delivery to crops.
Integration: The process of combining different elements into a cohesive whole. Example: Successful vertical farming requires the integration of advanced technologies for optimal results.
Circularity: The concept of a closed-loop system where resources are reused and recycled. Example: Vertical farming aims to achieve circularity by minimizing waste and maximizing resource efficiency.
Urban Renewal: The revitalization and improvement of urban areas, often involving the redevelopment of infrastructure. Example: Vertical farms contribute to urban renewal by repurposing spaces for sustainable food production.
Reliance: Dependence on or trust in someone or something. Example: Vertical farming aims to reduce reliance on traditional agriculture methods that may have environmental drawbacks.
Contribute: To actively participate in or be a part of something. Example: Vertical farming can contribute to a more sustainable and resilient food production system.
Integration: The coordination and combining of different components or systems. Example: The successful integration of renewable energy sources is crucial for the viability of vertical farming.
Plausible: Likely to happen or be true; reasonable or acceptable. Example: While vertical farming faces challenges, it is considered a plausible solution to future food production needs.

PASSAGE-2

THE FALKIRK WHEEL

A unique engineering achievement

1. Navigability: The ability to navigate or travel on a body of water. Example: The project aimed to restore navigability across Scotland's waterways.

2. Millennium Link: Refers to the ambitious £84.5m project to restore navigability across Scotland's canals. Example: The Falkirk Wheel is a central part of the Millennium Link project.

3. Waterways: Bodies of water, such as rivers and canals, that are navigable. Example: The historic waterways of the Forth & Clyde and Union Canals were reconnected.

4. Enclosed: Closed or surrounded. Example: Locks are enclosed sections of the canal used to control water levels.

5. Dismantled: Taken apart or disassembled. Example: The locks had been dismantled in 1933, breaking the link between canals.

6. Landmark: A recognizable and significant feature. Example: The Falkirk Wheel is a twenty-first-century landmark.

7. Regeneration: Revitalization or renewal, especially in an economic context. Example: The wheel symbolizes the economic regeneration of the region.

8. Submitted: Presented or proposed for consideration. Example: Numerous ideas were submitted for the project.

9. Propeller: A rotating device with blades that propels a ship through water. Example: The wheel's shape was inspired by the turning propeller of a ship.

10. Ribcage: The structure of bones that protects the chest. Example: The wheel's shape was inspired by the ribcage of a whale.

11. Spine: The backbone or central support. Example: The wheel's shape was inspired by the spine of a fish.

12. Assembled: Put together or constructed. Example: The various parts of the wheel were assembled at Butterley Engineering.

13. Toy building set: A collection of toy pieces used to build structures. Example: The wheel's parts were assembled like one giant toy building set.

14. Precision: Accuracy and exactness. Example: The steel pieces were assembled with a precision of 10 mm.

15. Bolts: Fasteners used to hold pieces together. Example: Over 45,000 bolt holes were matched with their bolts.

16. Robust: Strong and sturdy. Example: The steel sections were bolted to make the structure more robust.

17. Displacement: The movement of water by a floating object. Example: The wheel's balance relies on Archimedes' principle of displacement.

18. Hydraulic: Relating to the use of water or other fluids in motion. Example: Hydraulic steel gates are raised to seal the gondola off.

19. Gondolas: Large containers or compartments. Example: Two water-filled gondolas with a capacity of 360,000 liters.

20. Clamp: A device to hold something in place. Example: A hydraulic clamp prevents the wheel's arms from moving.

21. Docked: Attached or secured in a specific location. Example: The gondola is docked, and the clamp is removed to allow rotation.

22. Axle: A central shaft around which a wheel rotates. Example: Hydraulic motors rotate the central axle of the wheel.

23. Revolution: A complete circle or rotation. Example: The wheel rotates at a speed of 1/8 of a revolution per minute.

24. Aqueduct: A bridge-like structure for conveying water. Example: Boats pass onto the aqueduct situated 24 meters above the canal basin.

25. Lift: Raising something, in this context, the elevation of boats. Example: The remaining 11 meters of lift is achieved by a pair of locks.

26. Antonine Wall: A historically important wall built by the Romans. Example: The Wheel couldn't elevate boats over the full 35-meter difference due to the presence of the Antonine Wall.

27. Tunnel: A passage through or under something. Example: Boats travel under the Antonine Wall via a tunnel.

28. Orbit: The path an object takes around another object. Example: Two eight-meter-wide cogs orbit a fixed inner cog.

29. Cogs: Toothed wheels engaged with each other. Example: The gearing system includes two eight-meter-wide cogs.

30. Opposed: Positioned in resistance or opposition. Example: The two sets of axe-shaped arms are diametrically opposed.

31. Hydraulic Motors: Motors powered by fluid pressure. Example: The central machine room houses an array of ten hydraulic motors.

32. Upright: In a vertical or straight position. Example: The gearing system keeps the gondolas in the upright position.

33. Aqueduct: A bridge-like structure for conveying water. Example: Boats pass onto the aqueduct situated 24 meters above the canal basin.

34. Constantly changing stresses: Varied pressures and forces that are consistently in flux. Example: The wheel needs to withstand constantly changing stresses as it rotates.

35. Immense: Extremely large or massive. Example: The wheel would need to withstand immense and changing stresses.

36. Economical: Using little power or resources efficiently. Example: The wheel rotates using very little power, making it economical.

37. Kilowatt-hours: A unit of energy. Example: It takes just 1.5 kilowatt-hours of energy to rotate the Wheel.

38. Domestic Kettles: Small household appliances for boiling water. Example: The energy used is roughly the same as boiling eight small domestic kettles of water.

39. Assemble: To put together or construct. Example: The steel pieces were carefully assembled at Butterley Engineering.

40. Transport: The movement or conveyance of goods or people. Example: The structure was transported on 35 lorries to Falkirk before being assembled again.

41. Canals: Artificial waterways constructed for navigation. Example: The project aimed to reconnect the historic waterways of the Forth & Clyde and Union Canals.

42. Link: Connection or joining. Example: The Falkirk Wheel is a crucial link in the Millennium Link project.

43. Ambient: Surrounding or existing in the surrounding area. Example: The wheel needs to withstand ambient and constantly changing stresses.

44. Efficiency: The ability to accomplish a task with minimal waste. Example: The design ensures the efficient rotation of the wheel with minimal power consumption.

45. Diametrically: Completely or directly opposite. Example: The two sets of arms are diametrically opposed, providing balance to the wheel.

46. Gearing system: A mechanism for controlling the speed and direction of motion. Example: The gearing system keeps the gondolas level as the wheel rotates.

47. Robustness: The quality of being strong and sturdy. Example: The bolted steel sections add robustness to the structure.

48. Flux: Continuous change or flow. Example: The wheel needs to withstand stresses that are in constant flux.

49. Commemoration: The act of remembering and honoring. Example: The Falkirk Wheel serves as a fitting commemoration of the Millennium.

50. Symbolize: Represent or stand for something. Example: The wheel symbolizes both the Millennium's commemoration and the economic regeneration of the region.

Top of Form

PASSAGE-3

Reducing the Effects of Climate Change

1. Geo-engineering: The intentional large-scale manipulation of the environment. Example: Geo-engineering projects aim to address the challenges posed by climate change.

2. Proponents: Supporters or advocates of a particular idea or cause. Example: The proponents of geo-engineering argue for the need for a backup plan in case reducing fossil fuel dependency fails.

3. Disperse: To spread or scatter in different directions. Example: Dry ice, silver iodide, and cement powder were deposited to disperse clouds during MayDay parades.

4. Refracting: Bending or changing the direction of light. Example: Professor Roger Angel's sunshade scheme aims to form a transparent, sunlight-refracting shield in orbit.

5. Eye-catching: Attracting attention or striking. Example: Professor Angel's idea of using trillions of minute spacecraft is the most eye-catching proposal.

6. Replenish: To fill or restore to the original level. Example: Replenishing the ice sheets is seen as a strategy to reflect more light back into space.

7. Aerosol: A substance enclosed under pressure and released as a fine spray. Example: Releasing aerosol sprays into the stratosphere is a proposed method to induce global dimming.

8. Stratosphere: The second major atmospheric layer above the Earth's surface. Example: Aerosol sprays would be released into the stratosphere to influence climate conditions.

9. Dimming: Reduction or lessening in brightness. Example: The release of aerosols aims to create a global dimming effect.

10. Scrutinised: Examined or inspected closely. Example: Scientists have scrutinized the potential of preserving ice sheets with high-tension cables.

11. Reinforced: Strengthened or made more robust. Example: High-tension cables are proposed to reinforce ice sheets and prevent icebergs from moving into the sea.

12. Caution: Prudence or careful consideration. Example: Scientists express caution about the potential risks and impacts of geo-engineering projects.

13. Permanent solution: A long-term and lasting resolution. Example: Dr. Phil Rasch emphasizes that developing renewable energy is the only permanent solution to climate change.

14. Impact: The effect or influence of one thing on another. Example: Geo-engineering plans may have an impact on rainfall patterns and sea ice extent.

15. Overshoot: To go beyond or exceed a target or limit. Example: There is a risk of overshooting desired climate conditions with certain geo-engineering projects.

16. Tropics: The region of the Earth surrounding the equator. Example: Geo-engineering may affect rainfall patterns across the tropics.

17. Distribution: The arrangement or spread of something. Example: Geo-engineering projects may have an impact on the distribution of precipitation.

18. Scenario: A possible sequence of events or outcomes. Example: Dr. Dan Hunt discusses the scenario where global temperatures are brought back to pre-industrial levels.

19. Reinforces: Strengthens or supports a belief or viewpoint. Example: Dr. Hunt's findings reinforce the view that avoiding the need for geo-engineering is the best option.

20. Conservation organizations: Groups focused on protecting the environment and natural resources. Example: Even leading conservation organizations recognize the value of exploring geo-engineering possibilities.

21. Investigating: Examining or researching. Example: Dr. Martin Sommerkorn suggests investigating the potential of geo-engineering given the challenges posed by climate change.

22. Induced: Brought about or caused. Example: Human-induced climate change has prompted a reevaluation of strategies like geo-engineering.

23. Exclude: To deliberately leave out or not consider. Example: Dr. Sommerkorn argues that humanity shouldn't exclude thorough thinking about geo-engineering and its possibilities.

24. Challenges: Difficulties or obstacles that need to be overcome. Example: Climate change poses significant challenges that require innovative solutions like geo-engineering.

25. Ambitious: Having high aspirations or goals. Example: Geo-engineering projects represent ambitious attempts to address the consequences of climate change.

26. Inevitable: Unavoidable or certain to happen. Example: Significant global warming is now considered inevitable due to the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

27. Stemming: Slowing down or stopping the progress of something. Example: Many countries face challenges in stemming the rate of carbon emissions.

28. Alternative: An option or choice that can be considered instead of the primary one. Example: Geo-engineering is seen as an alternative to reducing dependence on fossil fuels.

29. Manipulation: Controlled or skillful handling. Example: Geo-engineering involves intentional manipulation of environmental conditions.

30. Scaling up: Increasing the size or scope of a project. Example: The challenge is scaling up successful geo-engineering projects for a global impact.

31. Melting: The process of turning from a solid to a liquid due to heat. Example: Geo-engineering projects aim to reverse the melting of ice at the poles.

32. Reversing: Turning back or undoing a process. Example: Some geo-engineering projects focus on reversing the impacts of climate change, such as melting ice.

33. High latitudes: Regions located at or near the Earth's poles. Example: Replenishing ice sheets in high latitudes is believed to reflect more light back into space.

34. Diminishing: Decreasing or reducing in size. Example: Geo-engineering projects seek to address the diminishing ice sheets and frozen waters in polar regions.

35. Scrutiny: Careful examination or inspection. Example: Geo-engineering plans are subject to scrutiny to evaluate their feasibility and potential risks.

36. Proposed method: A suggested approach or technique. Example: The proposed method of releasing aerosol sprays in the stratosphere aims to induce global dimming.

37. Modelled on: Designed based on a particular example or pattern. Example: The idea of releasing aerosols is modelled on historic volcanic explosions that led to cooling.

38. Pre-industrial levels: Conditions that existed before the Industrial Revolution. Example: The goal is to bring global temperatures back to pre-industrial levels through geo-engineering.

39. Cautionary note: A warning or expression of caution. Example: Dr. Rasch strikes a cautionary note about potential impacts on precipitation patterns.

40. Return to: Going back to a previous state or condition. Example: Dr. Rasch suggests that if geo-engineering were to end, the planet would return to its pre-engineered condition rapidly.

41. Injection: Introducing or forcing a substance into a specific place. Example: The proposal to inject sulphur into the atmosphere is part of geo-engineering plans.

42. Distribution of precipitation: The way rainfall is spread across an area. Example: Geo-engineering might impact the distribution of precipitation, affecting different regions.

43. Extent of sea ice: The amount or coverage of ice on the Earth's seas. Example: Geo-engineering plans may increase the extent of sea ice, influencing climate conditions.

44. Worry about: Expressing concern or anxiety about a potential issue. Example: Dr. Rasch mentions that the rapid return to pre-engineered conditions is something to worry about.

45. Cautious about: Exercising care or restraint in dealing with a situation. Example: Scientists are cautious about the potential risks and uncertainties associated with geo-engineering.

46. Implement: To put a plan or idea into action. Example: The question remains whether geo-engineering schemes will ever be implemented on a global scale.

47. Permanent solution: A long-lasting and enduring resolution. Example: Dr. Angel emphasizes that geo-engineering is not a permanent solution, and renewable energy development is necessary.

48. Carbon cuts: Reductions in carbon emissions. Example: The ability of politicians to agree on and implement necessary carbon cuts is doubted by many in the scientific community.

49. Investigating the potential: Examining the possibilities or capabilities of a particular approach. Example: Leading conservation organizations see value in investigating the potential of geo-engineering.

50. Thinking thoroughly: Conducting comprehensive and careful consideration. Example: Dr. Sommerkorn suggests thinking thoroughly about geo-engineering and its possibilities in addressing climate change challenges

ACADEMIC READING TEST-2

PASSAGE-1

Raising the Mary Rose

How a sixteenth-century warship was recovered from the seabed

1. Seabed: The bottom of a sea or ocean. Example: The Mary Rose rested on the seabed for centuries.

2. Solent: A strait separating the Isle of Wight from the mainland of southern England. Example: The sea battle involving the Mary Rose took place in the Solent.

3. Overladen: Loaded or burdened with excessive weight. Example: Some believe the Mary Rose sank because it was overladen and sailing too low in the water.

4. Undisciplined: Lacking discipline or order. Example: Some accounts suggest that the Mary Rose mishandled by an undisciplined crew.

5. Eroded: Worn away or deteriorated over time. Example: The exposed port side of the Mary Rose was eroded by marine organisms and degradation.

6. Timbers: Wooden pieces used in the construction of a ship. Example: Diver John Deane discovered several timbers when exploring the Mary Rose.

7. Bronze gun: A firearm made of bronze. Example: John Deane uncovered a bronze gun among the artifacts of the Mary Rose.

8. Obscurity: The state of being unknown or forgotten. Example: The Mary Rose faded into obscurity for a hundred years after its discovery in 1836.

9. Project 'Solent Ships': An initiative to examine known wrecks in the Solent, led by Alexander McKee. Example: The Solent Ships project aimed to explore wrecks, with a focus on finding the Mary Rose.

10. Side-scan sonar: A technology used for mapping the seafloor. Example: Harold E. Edgerton's side-scan sonar systems helped identify the location of the Mary Rose.

11. Excavations: Systematic digging or uncovering of archaeological sites. Example: Excavations in 1971 uncovered part of the Mary Rose's frame.

12. Artefacts: Objects made by humans, often of historical or cultural significance. Example: The Mary Rose revealed a treasure trove of beautifully preserved artifacts.

13. Climax: The high point or culmination of an event. Example: The climax of the operation was the uncovering of part of the ship's frame in 1971.

14. Mary Rose Trust: Formed in 1979 to oversee the Mary Rose project, with Prince Charles as its President. Example: The Mary Rose Trust aimed to preserve and showcase the historical ship.

15. Salvage: The act of saving or rescuing from destruction. Example: The decision to salvage the Mary Rose required careful consideration.

16. Open shell: The remaining hull of the Mary Rose without a covering. Example: The open shell of the Mary Rose presented challenges for the salvage operation.

17. Hydraulic jacks: Devices using fluid pressure to lift heavy objects. Example: Hydraulic jacks were used to raise the Mary Rose a few centimeters during the lifting operation.

18. Lifting frame: A structure used to lift the hull of the Mary Rose. Example: The hull was attached to a lifting frame via bolts and wires.

19. Stabbing guides: Guides used for precise positioning during the lifting operation. Example: The lifting cradle had stabbing guides to assist in positioning the hull.

20. Archaeological survey drawings: Drawings used to design the lifting cradle based on archaeological measurements. Example: The lifting cradle was designed using archaeological survey drawings to fit the hull accurately.

21. Air bags: Inflatable bags providing additional cushioning for delicate timber frameworks. Example: The lifting cradle was fitted with air bags to protect the Mary Rose's delicate timber structure.

22. Timber skeleton: The wooden framework of the Mary Rose. Example: The timber skeleton of the Mary Rose was lifted clear of the water in 1982.

23. Portsmouth: The city where the Mary Rose was returned after salvage. Example: The timber skeleton of the Mary Rose was lifted clear of the water, ready to be returned home to Portsmouth.

24. Precise positioning: Accurate placement or alignment. Example: The lifting cradle required precise positioning to locate the legs into the stabbing guides.

25. Stages: Distinct phases or steps in a process. Example: The salvage operation of the Mary Rose was conducted in three very distinct stages.

26. Suction effect: The force pulling an object downward, in this context, the hull into the mud. Example: Hydraulic jacks were used to overcome the suction effect of the surrounding mud during the lifting operation.

27. Delicate: Fragile or easily damaged. Example: The Mary Rose's timber framework was delicate, requiring careful handling during the salvage.

28. Raising the hull: Lifting the Mary Rose's hull from the seabed. Example: The decision to salvage the Mary Rose included the challenge of raising the hull.

29. Millions of people held their breath: A figurative expression indicating widespread anticipation and tension. Example: On 11 October 1982, millions of people around the world held their breath as the Mary Rose was lifted clear of the water.

30. Historical significance: Importance or relevance in terms of history. Example: The Mary Rose is of great historical significance as a sixteenth-century warship.

31. Treasure trove: A collection of valuable or precious items. Example: The Mary Rose revealed a treasure trove of artifacts, providing insights into the past.

32. Solving challenges: Overcoming difficulties or obstacles. Example: The salvage operation required solving challenges related to the delicate state of the Mary Rose's hull.

33. Preserving: Protecting and maintaining for future generations. Example: The Mary Rose Trust was formed with the aim of preserving the historical ship and its artifacts.

34. Project initiator: The person or entity that initiated a particular project. Example: Alexander McKee, a military historian and amateur diver, was the project initiator for 'Solent Ships.'

35. Collaborating: Working together on a project or task. Example: Alexander McKee collaborated with Harold E. Edgerton to locate the Mary Rose using side-scan sonar systems.

36. Unaware: Not having knowledge or awareness of something. Example: Initially, the team was unaware that the Mary Rose housed a treasure trove of artifacts.

37. Feasible: Possible or practical. Example: The decision to salvage the Mary Rose was made only when it was deemed feasible after thorough examination.

38. Sank: Descended or went down to the bottom of the sea. Example: The Mary Rose sank into the Solent during the sea battle of 1545.

39. Reveal: To make known or disclose. Example: The excavations in 1971 revealed part of the Mary Rose's frame, confirming the discovery of the wreck.

40. Military fleets: Groups of warships organized for a specific purpose. Example: English and French military fleets engaged in a sea battle in the Solent in 1545.

41. Naval battle: A combat between ships at sea. Example: The Mary Rose participated in a naval battle off the coast of southern England.

42. Favourite of King Henry VIII: A ship preferred or liked by King Henry VIII. Example: The Mary Rose was a favourite of King Henry VIII before it sank.

43. Disputed: Contested or disagreed upon. Example: Accounts of what happened to the Mary Rose vary, and some aspects are disputed among historians.

44. Exposure: Uncovering or making visible. Example: The exposure of the port side of the Mary Rose led to erosion by marine organisms.

45. Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: Historical periods from the years 1601 to 1800. Example: The Mary Rose site became covered with a layer of hard grey clay during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

46. Uncovered: Revealed or brought to light. Example: On 5 May 1971, part of the ship's frame was uncovered during excavations.

47. Anticipation: Eager expectation or excitement about something to come. Example: The lifting of the Mary Rose created anticipation worldwide.

48. Archaelogical Director: Dr. Margaret Rule served as the Archaeological Director of The Mary Rose Trust. Example: Dr. Margaret Rule played a crucial role in overseeing the archaeological aspects of the Mary Rose project.

49. Underwater obstruction: A barrier or hindrance located beneath the water's surface. Example: Fishermen discovered their equipment caught on an underwater obstruction, which turned out to be the Mary Rose.

50. Ready to be returned home: Prepared to be brought back to its original location or destination. Example: On 11 October 1982, the timber skeleton of the Mary Rose was lifted clear of the water, ready to be returned home to Portsmouth.

PASSAGE-2

What destroyed the civilisation of Easter Island?

1. Rapu Nui: The local name for Easter Island. Example: The moai statues are found on Rapu Nui.

2. Moai: Ancient human statues on Easter Island. Example: The moai on Easter Island are known for their impressive size and craftsmanship.

3. Ethnographer: A person who studies and describes the culture of a particular society. Example: Thor Heyerdahl, the Norwegian ethnographer, had different theories about the moai builders.

4. Extraterrestrials: Beings from outside Earth; aliens. Example: Erich von Daniken believed the moai were built by stranded extraterrestrials.

5. Genetic evidence: Evidence related to the study of genes and heredity. Example: Modern science, including genetic evidence, has identified the moai builders as Polynesians.

6. Ancestors: Forefathers or predecessors. Example: Local folklore suggests that the ancestors dragged the statues using ropes and logs.

7. Lush: Abundant and thriving, often describing vegetation. Example: Easter Island was covered in lush palm forests before the arrival of Polynesians.

8. Fertilised: Enriched with nutrients, often referring to soil. Example: The island was too remote to be properly fertilised by windblown volcanic ash.

9. Fragile: Easily breakable or vulnerable. Example: Easter Island was unfortunately settled on an extremely fragile island.

10. Soil erosion: The wearing away of the topsoil by natural forces. Example: Soil erosion decreased crop yields on Easter Island.

11. Civil war: A war between groups within the same country or community. Example: According to Jared Diamond, the Rapanui descended into civil war and cannibalism.

12. Cannibalism: The practice of eating the flesh of one's own species. Example: Jared Diamond suggests that cannibalism occurred on Easter Island before European arrival.

13. Collapse: The sudden failure or breakdown of a system. Example: Diamond describes the collapse of Rapanui civilization as a worst-case scenario.

14. Self-destruction: The act or process of causing harm or damage to oneself. Example: Jared Diamond argues that the Rapanui accelerated their own self-destruction.

15. Asserting dominance: Demonstrating control or authority. Example: Diamond interprets the moai as power displays by chieftains asserting dominance.

16. Wooden sledges: Sledges made of wood, possibly used to transport the moai. Example: Diamond suggests that the moai were laid on wooden sledges.

17. Log rails: Rails made of logs, possibly used for transporting the moai. Example: Diamond proposes that the moai were hauled over log rails.

18. Ropes and logs: Materials possibly used for moving the moai. Example: Researchers assume that the ancestors dragged the statues using ropes and logs.

19. Ecological catastrophe: A disaster affecting the environment. Example: Archaeologists agree that Easter Island experienced an ecological catastrophe.

20. Sediments: Particles that settle at the bottom of a liquid, often referring to the bottom of a lake. Example: Pollen preserved in lake sediments provided evidence of past vegetation.

21. Windblown volcanic ash: Ash carried by the wind from volcanic eruptions. Example: Easter Island's soil was not properly fertilised by windblown volcanic ash.

22. Deforestation: The action of clearing a wide area of trees. Example: The Rapanui cleared the forests for firewood and farming, leading to deforestation.

23. Wooden canoes: Boats made of wood. Example: As trees became scarce, the Rapanui could no longer construct wooden canoes for fishing.

24. Sustainable farming: Agricultural practices that can be maintained over the long term. Example: Hunt and Lipo argue that the prehistoric Rapanui were pioneers of sustainable farming.

25. Circular stone windbreaks: Structures built to protect fields from strong winds. Example: The Rapanui built circular stone windbreaks to shield their fields.

26. Nuts from the extinct Easter Island palm: Seeds from a palm tree species that no longer exists on Easter Island. Example: Archaeological finds of nuts from the extinct palm show evidence of rat gnawing.

27. Polynesian rats: Rats that arrived with Polynesian settlers. Example: Polynesian rats may have contributed to the extinction of the Easter Island palm.

28. Overrun: Invaded or overwhelmed. Example: Polynesian rats quickly overran the island, affecting its ecosystem.

29. Reseeding: The process of planting seeds again. Example: Polynesian rats prevented the reseeding of slow-growing palm trees on Easter Island.

30. Collapse of Rapanui civilization: The breakdown or decline of the society on Easter Island. Example: Hunt and Lipo see no evidence of Rapanui civilization collapsing when the palm forest disappeared.

31. Rapidly: Quickly or swiftly. Example: Hunt and Lipo believe the population of Rapa Nui grew rapidly until European arrival.

32. Deadly diseases: Illnesses that can cause death. Example: European arrival brought deadly diseases to which the islanders had no immunity.

33. Slave traders: Individuals involved in the buying and selling of slaves. Example: In the nineteenth century, slave traders decimated the population of Easter Island.

34. Shrivelled: Reduced in size or quality, often referring to a population. Example: The population of Easter Island shrivelled to 111 people by 1877.

35. Valuable lessons: Important teachings or insights. Example: The story of Easter Island offers valuable lessons for the world at large.

36. Reckless destroyers: Individuals causing damage without concern for consequences. Example: Hunt and Lipo present a vision of the Rapanui as stewards of the land, not reckless destroyers.

37. Ingenious: Clever, inventive, or resourceful. Example: Hunt and Lipo see the prehistoric Rapanui as ingenious moai builders and stewards of the land.

38. Abject failure: Complete and humiliating failure. Example: Hunt and Lipo argue that Rapu Nui is not a case of abject failure but an unlikely story of success.

39. Vision: Perspective or interpretation of events. Example: Hunt and Lipo present a vision of Easter Island's history that challenges previous views.

40. Stewards of the land: Caretakers or guardians of the environment. Example: Hunt and Lipo suggest that the Rapanui were careful stewards of the land.

41. Island's society: The community or social structure on Easter Island. Example: The collapse of the island's society is a central topic in discussions about Easter Island's history.

42. Worst-case scenario: The most unfavorable or disastrous outcome. Example: Jared Diamond views the collapse of Rapanui civilization as a worst-case scenario for our own future.

43. Wind-lashed: Subjected to strong winds. Example: The Rapanui cultivated wind-lashed fields and built windbreaks to protect their crops.

44. Prehistoric Rapanui: The ancient inhabitants of Easter Island. Example: Hunt and Lipo argue that the prehistoric Rapanui were pioneers of sustainable farming.

45. Replicas: Copies or reproductions of objects. Example: Recent experiments used replicas of the moai to test their maneuverability.

46. Maneuver: Move or handle with skill. Example: Archaeological experiments showed that a small number of people could maneuver a moai replica with ropes.

47. Fat bellies: The rounded shape of the moai statues. Example: The figures' fat bellies contributed to their stability during movement.

48. D-shaped base: The shape of the moai statues' bases. Example: The D-shaped base allowed the moai to be rolled and rocked side to side during transportation.

49. Tiny grooves: Small indentations or marks. Example: Grooves on nuts from the Easter Island palm indicated rat gnawing.

50. Pioneers: Trailblazers or innovators. Example: Hunt and Lipo consider the prehistoric Rapanui as pioneers of sustainable farming on Easter Island.

PASSAGE-3

Neuroaesthetics

1. Neuroaesthetics: An emerging discipline that applies scientific methods to study the neural basis of aesthetic experiences.Example: Neuroaesthetics aims to bring scientific objectivity to the study of art.

2. Masterpieces: Outstanding works of art, often by renowned artists.Example: Many people find Impressionist paintings to be masterpieces.

3. Amygdala: A part of the brain associated with emotions, particularly the processing of emotional responses.Example: The blurred imagery of Impressionist paintings stimulates the brain's amygdala.

4. Geometrical blocks: Abstract shapes with distinct geometric forms.Example: Mondrian's paintings are known for their geometrical blocks of color.

5. Haphazard arrangements: Random or disordered placement of elements.Example: Pollock's paintings are characterized by seemingly haphazard arrangements of splashed paint.

6. Sceptics: Those who doubt or question the validity of something.Example: Sceptics believe that people claim to like abstract art simply because it's famous.

7. Perceptual decisions: Decisions related to the interpretation of sensory information.Example: People often make perceptual decisions based on what they see others doing.

8. Inclination: A tendency or preference towards a particular action or choice.Example: We have an inclination to follow the crowd in making decisions.

9. Caption: A title or brief explanation accompanying an image.Example: Paintings were shown to volunteers with incorrect captions to test their preferences.

10. Acclaimed masterpiece: A highly praised and celebrated work of art.Example: Volunteers might think they are viewing a messy chimp's brushstrokes when it's actually an acclaimed masterpiece.

11. Neural activity: Activity in the brain, often measured in terms of electrical signals or responses.Example: The longer it took volunteers to answer questions about an artwork, the greater their neural activity.

12. Decipher: To interpret or understand something that is unclear or puzzling.Example: The brain sees ambiguous images as puzzles to decipher.

13. Meticulously composed: Carefully and precisely arranged or organized.Example: Eye-tracking studies confirm that Mondrian's works are meticulously composed.

14. Altered versions: Modified or changed forms of the original artworks.Example: Volunteers considered the altered versions less pleasurable when they later rated the work.

15. Activation: The process of making something active or operational.Example: Changing the composition of paintings reduced activation in brain areas linked with meaning and interpretation.

16. Visual intricacy: Complexity or detailed complexity of visual elements.Example: Forsythe's analysis focused on the visual intricacy of different pieces of art.

17. Fractals: Repeated patterns or motifs recurring in different scales.Example: Many appealing artworks show signs of fractals, which are common in nature.

18. Perceptual overload: Excessive or overwhelming sensory information.Example: Too much visual detail in artwork may lead to perceptual overload.

19. Mirror neurons: Neurons that mimic the actions of others.Example: The brain's mirror neurons might play a role in processing movement when viewing handwritten letters.

20. Dynamic: Energetic or characterized by constant change and activity.Example: Some suggest that Pollock's works feel dynamic because the brain reconstructs the energetic actions of the artist.

21. Hypothesis: A proposed explanation based on limited evidence, to be tested further.Example: The hypothesis about Pollock's works will need thorough testing.

22. Adapted: Well-suited or adjusted to a particular environment or condition.Example: Artworks best adapted to our visual system may have prolonged longevity.

23. Trends: Prevailing styles or preferences that are popular during a specific period.Example: Artworks adapted to visual trends may be popular in their respective time.

24. Ambiguous works: Art pieces that are open to multiple interpretations or meanings.Example: Robert Pepperell creates ambiguous works that challenge clear distinctions between abstract and representational art.

25. Freedom: The state of being free, allowing experimentation and exploration.Example: Abstract art offers the freedom to play with different interpretations.

26. Scientific laws: Systematic principles derived from scientific observation and analysis.Example: It would be foolish to reduce art appreciation to a set of scientific laws.

27. Style: A distinctive manner or characteristic of artistic expression.Example: The style of a particular artist contributes to the uniqueness of their work.

28. Artistic environment: The cultural and creative context in which an artist produces their work.Example: The artistic environment of a time period influences the style and themes of artworks.

29. Decoding meaning: Unraveling or understanding the intended significance of artistic content.Example: Like in science, we constantly look for systems and decoding meaning in art.

30. Abstract art: Art that does not attempt to represent external reality, often emphasizing shapes, colors, and forms.Example: Abstract art allows for a departure from realistic depictions.

31. Visual system: The sensory and perceptual mechanisms responsible for processing visual information.Example: Our visual system evolved to process patterns, such as fractals, found in nature.

32. Recognition: The act of identifying or acknowledging something previously encountered.Example: The brain finds the moment of recognition more rewarding when deciphering ambiguous images.

33. Inclination to follow: Tendency to conform or imitate the actions of others.Example: People have an inclination to follow others in making perceptual decisions.

34. Puzzles: Situations or objects that require careful thought and interpretation.Example: Ambiguous artworks are seen as puzzles for the brain to solve.

35. Fuzzy concept: Unclear or not well-defined idea.Example: Art appreciation is often considered a fuzzy concept with no right or wrong answer.

36. Thoroughly tested: Carefully examined or experimented with to determine validity.Example: The hypothesis about Pollock's works will need to be thoroughly tested for confirmation.

37. Play with different interpretations: Experimenting with various ways of understanding or perceiving artistic content.Example: Abstract art offers the freedom to play with different interpretations.

38. Longevity: The prolonged existence or endurance of something over time.Example: Artworks best adapted to our visual system may have longevity even after trends change.

39. Underestimate: To undervalue or not fully appreciate the significance of something.Example: It would be foolish to underestimate the importance of an artist's style and historical context.

40. Sense the artist's vision: Intuitively perceive or recognize the artistic intention behind a work.Example: Viewers can sense the artist's vision in paintings, even if they can't explain why.

41. Dynamic actions: Energetic or forceful movements made by the artist during the creation of the artwork.Example: The brain may reconstruct the dynamic actions of Pollock as it processes his works.

42. Mirror the actions: Mimic or imitate the movements made by the artist.Example: Mirror neurons in the brain may mirror the actions of the artist during the creative process.

43. Testing further: Conducting additional experiments or investigations to gather more evidence.Example: The hypothesis about Pollock's works will need testing further to establish its validity.

44. Constant change: Ongoing variations or fluctuations.Example: Abstract art, like science, is characterized by constant change and exploration.

45. Clear distinctions: Well-defined separations or differences between categories.Example: Pepperell's ambiguous works challenge clear distinctions between abstract and representational art.

46. Open to interpretations: Subject to multiple ways of understanding or perceiving.Example: Ambiguous artworks are open to various interpretations.

47. Prevailing styles: Dominant or popular artistic expressions during a specific era.Example: Abstract art offers a departure from prevailing styles, allowing for creative exploration.

48. Prolonged existence: Extended duration or continuance over a significant period.Example: Artworks adapted to our visual system may have prolonged existence beyond their time.

49. Departure from realistic depictions: Deviation from representing external reality in a lifelike manner.Example: Abstract art allows for a departure from realistic depictions, encouraging creativity.

50. Ambiguous images: Visual representations that are unclear or open to multiple interpretations.Example: Ambiguous images challenge the brain, making the moment of recognition more rewarding.

ACADEMIC READING TEST-3

PASSAGE-1

THE STORY OF SILK

The history of the world’s most luxurious fabric, from ancient China to the present day

1. Luxurious: Extremely comfortable and elegant, often associated with wealth and opulence. Example: Silk is considered the world's most luxurious fabric.

2. Cocoons: Soft protective shells produced by insect larvae, such as mulberry silkworms. Example: Silk is produced from the cocoons made by silkworms.

3. Mulberry Silkworms: Insect larvae that produce silk and are native to China. Example: Lei Tzu discovered that silkworms were responsible for the destruction of mulberry trees.

4. Legend: A traditional story or narrative passed down through generations, often with historical or mythical elements. Example: Legend has it that Lei Tzu discovered silkworms while walking in the gardens.

5. Reel: A device for winding or unwinding something, often used to draw fibers from cocoons into a single thread. Example: Lei Tzu devised a special reel to draw fibers from the cocoon into a single thread.

6. Symbol of Status: Something that represents high social standing or prestige. Example: Silk quickly became a symbol of status, and only royalty were entitled to wear it.

7. Royalty: Members of a royal family, often with special privileges or entitlements. Example: Originally, only royalty were entitled to have clothes made of silk.

8. Qing Dynasty: The last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1911 AD. Example: Even peasants were entitled to wear silk during the Qing Dynasty.

9. Unit of Currency: A form of money with a specific value, used in trade or as a standard of value. Example: Silk was used as a unit of currency during the Han Dynasty.

10. Diplomatic Gifts: Gifts exchanged between diplomats or countries as a gesture of goodwill or for diplomatic purposes. Example: Silk was used as diplomatic gifts by the Chinese emperor.

11. Silk Road: An ancient trade route connecting East and West, facilitating the exchange of silk, goods, and culture. Example: The Silk Road stretched over 6,000 kilometers from China to the Mediterranean Sea.

12. Middlemen: Intermediaries or agents who handle the buying and selling of goods between different parties. Example: Goods along the Silk Road were mostly handled by a series of middlemen.

13. Byzantine Empire: The eastern part of the Roman Empire, lasting from 330 to 1453 AD. Example: The Byzantine Empire ruled over the Mediterranean region and played a role in spreading the secret of silk-making.

14. Monopoly: Exclusive control or possession of a commodity or service. Example: For many centuries, the weaving and trading of silk fabric was a strict imperial monopoly.

15. Industrialization: The process of transforming an economy from agriculture-based to industry-based. Example: The European silk industry saw a downfall during the nineteenth century due to industrialization.

16. Suez Canal: A canal in Egypt connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea, facilitating trade routes. Example: Cheaper Japanese silk was facilitated by the opening of the Suez Canal.

17. Manmade Fibres: Synthetic fibers created through industrial processes, such as nylon. Example: Nylon replaced silk in products like stockings and parachutes during the twentieth century.

18. World Wars: Global conflicts that interrupted the supply of raw silk from Japan, impacting the European silk industry. Example: The two world wars stifled the European silk industry.

19. Raw Material: Unprocessed material used in the production of goods. Example: Japan's silk production was interrupted during the world wars due to a lack of raw material.

20. Industrial Revolution: A period of major economic, technological, and social changes in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Example: The European silk industry faced challenges during the Industrial Revolution.

21. Exporter: A country or entity that sells goods to other countries. Example: China has become the world's biggest exporter of raw silk and silk yarn.

22. Silk Yarn: Threads of silk used for weaving or knitting. Example: China is the world's biggest producer and exporter of raw silk and silk yarn.

23. Metric Tons: A unit of mass equivalent to 1,000 kilograms. Example: Today, around 125,000 metric tons of silk are produced worldwide.

24. Peasants: People of low social status, often engaged in agricultural work. Example: Even peasants were entitled to wear silk during the Qing Dynasty.

25. Esteemed Reputation: High regard or respect. Example: Silk processed in the province of Como in northern Italy enjoys an esteemed reputation.

26. Recaptured: Regained or regained control of. Example: China has gradually recaptured its position as the world's biggest producer of raw silk.

27. Pioneers: Leaders or early adopters in a particular field. Example: The prehistoric Rapanui were pioneers of sustainable farming.

28. Facilitated: Made easier or more accessible. Example: The opening of the Suez Canal facilitated trade routes between the East and West.

29. Legacy: Something handed down from the past, often with historical or cultural significance. Example: The Silk Road left a lasting legacy of cultural exchange between East and West.

30. Cultivation: The process of growing and nurturing crops or plants. Example: Silk cultivation has existed in China for several millennia.

31. Haphazardly: In a random or disorganized manner. Example: Pollock's paintings are characterized by seemingly haphazard arrangements of splashed paint.

32. Collaboration: Working together towards a common goal or project. Example: McKee collaborated with Edgerton to reveal the wreck of the Mary Rose using sonar systems.

33. Intricacy: Complexity or detailed complexity. Example: Forsythe analyzed the visual intricacy of different pieces of art.

34. Diversification: The process of varying or expanding a range of products or services. Example: Diversification of trade routes occurred along the Silk Road, connecting different regions.

35. Ubiquitous: Present, appearing, or found everywhere. Example: Fractals are ubiquitous in nature, appearing in various forms such as mountain peaks and tree branches.

36. Adaptation: The process of adjusting to new conditions or changes. Example: Artworks best adapted to our visual system may be the most likely to linger once trends change.

37. Esteemed Reputation: High regard or respect. Example: Silk processed in the province of Como in northern Italy enjoys an esteemed reputation.

38. Widespread: Found or distributed over a large area or among many people. Example: Silk production became widespread through Africa, Sicily, and Spain as the Arabs spread through these lands.

39. Acclaim: Praise or approval, often for exceptional achievements. Example: The Byzantines were as secretive as the Chinese, and for many centuries, the weaving and trading of silk fabric was a strict imperial acclaim.

40. Imposing: Grand or impressive in appearance. Example: The Silk Road stretched over 6,000 kilometers, imposing in its scale and impact on trade.

41. Trade Route: A path followed by merchants or traders for the exchange of goods. Example: The Silk Road was a significant trade route connecting East and West.

42. Preceded: Came before or existed prior to. Example: The Silk Road preceded other major trade routes and played a crucial role in connecting civilizations.

43. Silhouette: The outline or general shape of something. Example: The silhouettes of mulberry silkworms are distinct during the cocooning process.

44. Cultivate: To promote the growth or development of something. Example: Lei Tzu persuaded her husband to allow her to cultivate silkworms on a grove of mulberry trees.

45. Endeavor: A concerted effort or attempt towards a goal. Example: The endeavor to restore Japan's silk production after the Second World War was successful.

46. Monotonous: Lacking in variety or interest, dull. Example: Too little visual intricacy can make the artwork monotonous and less appealing.

47. Intricate: Complicated or detailed in design. Example: The intricate patterns of silk fabric showcase the craftsmanship of the weavers.

48. Nurturing: Caring for and encouraging the growth or development of something. Example: The nurturing of silkworms involves providing them with a suitable environment for cocooning.

49. Loom: A device used for weaving fabric. Example: Silk was woven into fabric using traditional looms.

50. Cultural Exchange: The exchange of cultural ideas, traditions, or practices between different groups or regions. Example: The Silk Road facilitated cultural exchange between East and West, influencing art, technology, and lifestyle.

Top of Form

PASSAGE-2

Great Migrations

1. Migration: Regular movements, often in an annual cycle, involving many members of a species, typically for the purpose of reaching a specific destination.Example: Animal migration is a fascinating phenomenon that involves various species traveling long distances.

2. Inherited Instinct: Natural behavior passed down from generation to generation, often related to survival or reproduction.Example: The intense attentiveness of migrating animals to their mission suggests an inherited instinct.

3. Linear: Following a straight line or course, not zigzagging.Example: Migratory routes tend to be linear, guiding animals toward their destination.

4. Special Behaviors: Unique actions or activities associated with the preparation and arrival phases of migration.Example: Overfeeding is a special behavior observed in animals preparing for migration.

5. Special Allocations of Energy: The directed use of energy resources during migration.Example: Migrating animals allocate energy efficiently to sustain them through the long journey.

6. Intense Attentiveness: Extreme focus and concentration on the larger mission, preventing distractions.Example: Migrating birds maintain an intense attentiveness to their journey, staying undistracted by temptations.

7. Larger Purpose: A broader or more significant goal or objective.Example: The arctic tern is determined to reach its destination, driven by a larger purpose.

8. Distraction Resistance: The ability to remain focused and undeterred by challenges or temptations.Example: Migrating animals resist distractions and challenges, staying committed to their journey.

9. Seasonal Back-and-Forth Movement: Periodic migration between a seasonal home area and another home area.Example: The pronghorn engages in seasonal back-and-forth movement to seek resources.

10. Zooplankton: Small organisms drifting in oceans, typically microscopic animals.Example: Daily vertical movements by zooplankton in the ocean can be considered a form of migration.

11. Aphids: Small insects that can cause damage to plants by feeding on sap.Example: The movement of aphids from one host plant to another is a type of migration.

12. Vertical Movements: Upward and downward movements, often in response to environmental conditions.Example: Zooplankton exhibit vertical movements in the ocean to seek food and escape predators.

13. Phenomenon: A fact or event that can be observed and studied.Example: Migration is a complex phenomenon that varies across different species.

14. Evolutionary Biologist: A scientist specializing in the study of how species evolve over time.Example: Hugh Dingle is an evolutionary biologist who has identified characteristics of migration.

15. Sensitivity to Light: Responsiveness to different wavelengths of light, influencing behavior.Example: Aphids become sensitive to blue light for takeoff and yellow light for landing during migration.

16. Focus on Evolution: Concentrating attention on shared characteristics across different migrating species to understand evolutionary processes.Example: Dingle's definition of migration helps researchers focus on common features shaped by evolution.

17. Deteriorating Impact: Harmful effects resulting from human actions on animal migration.Example: Human behavior is having a detrimental impact on the migration patterns of certain species.

18. Pronghorn: The fastest land mammal in the New World, resembling an antelope.Example: Pronghorn populations face challenges due to increasing human development affecting migration routes.

19. Migration Route: The path followed by migrating animals during their journey.Example: Preserving the migration route of pronghorn is essential for their survival.

20. Bottlenecks: Narrow points or restrictions in the migration route that can pose challenges to the migrating species.Example: Pronghorn face bottlenecks in their migration route, risking their access to summer grazing.

21. Invariance: Consistency or lack of variation in the migration route.Example: The pronghorn is notable for the invariance of its migration route.

22. Conservation Scientists: Professionals working to protect and preserve the natural environment and its inhabitants.Example: Conservation scientists aim to preserve not only species and habitats but also migrational behaviors.

23. Migration Corridor: A designated and protected path for migrating species.Example: Recognizing the pronghorn's migration route as a protected corridor helps in conservation efforts.

24. National Park Service: A U.S. government agency managing national parks and conservation areas.Example: The National Park Service plays a role in preserving migrational behaviors within protected areas.

25. Jurisdictions: Areas with specific legal authorities or control.Example: Preserving migration routes may involve coordination across multiple jurisdictions to address challenges.

26. Borders: Boundaries separating different territories or regions.Example: Some migrating species face challenges due to crossing borders during their journey.

27. Wisdom and Resoluteness: The combination of knowledge and determination needed to address challenges and ensure the continuation of migration.Example: Preserving migration routes requires wisdom and resoluteness to overcome various obstacles.

28. Journeying: The act of traveling or undertaking a journey.Example: Ensuring that migrating species can continue their journeying is crucial for biodiversity.

29. Migrational Flight: Extended flights undertaken by animals during migration.Example: Birds fatten themselves before migrational flights to ensure they have sufficient energy.

30. Dangers Along the Way: Threats or risks encountered by migrating species during their journey.Example: Some migrating species face dangers along the way, such as habitat destruction or predation.

31. Back-and-Forth Movement: Repeated movements between different areas, often for specific purposes.Example: Seasonal back-and-forth movement allows animals to access resources not available year-round.

32. Complexity: The state of being intricate or having many interconnected parts.Example: Migration is a complex issue with various factors influencing different species.

33. Preservation: The act of protecting and maintaining something in its original state.Example: Preservation efforts focus on maintaining natural migration routes and behaviors.

34. Threatening to Choke Off: Posing a risk of blocking or hindering the migratory passageway.Example: Increasing development is threatening to choke off the pronghorn's migration route.

35. Crisis for the Pronghorn: A situation endangering the survival of the pronghorn population.Example: Human development leading to bottlenecks poses a crisis for the pronghorn's migration.

36. Sagebrush: A type of shrub that is a significant food source for pronghorn during winter.Example: Pronghorn feed on sagebrush blown clear of snow during the frozen months.

37. Vertical Movements in the Ocean: Upward and downward shifts by zooplankton in response to day-night cycles.Example: Daily vertical movements in the ocean by zooplankton are considered a form of migration.

38. Vertical Movements by Zooplankton: Upward by night to seek food and downward by day to escape predators.Example: Vertical movements by zooplankton demonstrate migration patterns in the ocean.

39. Crisis for the Pronghorn: A situation endangering the survival of the pronghorn population.Example: Human development leading to bottlenecks poses a crisis for the pronghorn's migration.

40. Sagebrush: A type of shrub that is a significant food source for pronghorn during winter.Example: Pronghorn feed on sagebrush blown clear of snow during the frozen months.

PASSAGE-3

Preface to ‘How the other half thinks:Adventures in mathematical reasoning’

1. Phenomenon: A fact or occurrence that can be observed. Example: The author illustrates the phenomenon of simple and beautiful parts in difficult musical compositions.

2. Appreciate: To understand and recognize the value or significance of something. Example: The book aims to help readers appreciate the beauty of mathematics.

3. Intuitive: Based on a natural ability to understand or perceive something. Example: Mathematics, as shown in the book, involves both analytical and intuitive thinking.

4. Analytical: Relating to the examination or analysis of something in a detailed and methodical way. Example: The left brain is often associated with analytical thinking.

5. Numerical: Relating to numbers or the process of using them. Example: The left brain is often associated with numerical thinking.

6. Capacity: The ability to contain or hold. Example: Each of us is far from using the full capacity of either side of the brain.

7. Outline: The main features or structure of something. Example: The broad outline of a scientific theory can be sketched intuitively.

8. Sustained: Maintained or continued over a long period. Example: Mathematical reasoning involves sustained, step-by-step analysis.

9. Tantalized: Teased or tempted with something that is unattainable. Example: The reader must remain a tantalized spectator when the appropriate language is mathematics.

10. Aficionados: Enthusiasts or fans of a particular subject. Example: Mathematics aficionados will find much that is new throughout the book.

11. Analytical skills: The ability to analyze or examine a situation in a thorough and detailed way. Example: The book serves readers who want to sharpen their analytical skills.

12. Thoroughly: In a complete and detailed manner. Example: In medicine, a problem must be thoroughly analyzed before a solution can be found.

13. Legal principles: Fundamental laws or rules that form the basis of the legal system. Example: Lawyers who have studied mathematics can master legal principles in a unique way.

14. Testimonials: Statements or declarations expressing someone's positive experiences or opinions. Example: The book includes testimonials from a physician and a lawyer regarding the benefits of studying mathematics.

15. Episode: A brief and often significant event or occurrence. Example: Some readers enjoyed mathematics until they were turned off by an unpleasant episode, usually around fifth grade.

16. Precise analysis: Detailed and accurate examination or interpretation of information. Example: Many careers, such as law and medicine, require extended, precise analysis.

17. Mathematical reasoning: The process of thinking and problem-solving using mathematical principles. Example: The book presents details that illustrate the mathematical reasoning involved in various concepts.

18. Claims: Statements or assertions, often requiring verification. Example: It may help to have a pencil and paper ready to check claims and carry out experiments while reading the book.

19. Participate: To take part or engage in an activity. Example: The book offers all readers the chance to participate in a mathematical experience.

20. Scientific theories: Systematic explanations of observed phenomena in the natural world. Example: The foundation of many scientific theories is provided by mathematics.

21. Mathematical procedures: Step-by-step methods or processes related to mathematics. Example: This book differs from most as it goes into mathematical procedures without assuming the reader is adept in algebra.

22. Right brain and left brain: Referring to the two hemispheres of the brain associated with different cognitive functions. Example: The alleged gap between the humanities and sciences corresponds to the right brain (intuitive) and the left brain (analytical, numerical).

23. Structural engineer: A professional who designs and analyzes structures such as buildings and bridges. Example: The book mentions a structural engineer who is also an artist.

24. Electrical engineer: A professional who designs and works with electrical systems and devices. Example: The book mentions an electrical engineer who is also an opera singer.

25. Chromosomes: Thread-like structures in cells that carry genetic information. Example: The appropriate language for describing details in genetics often involves mathematics.

26. Analysis of principles: The examination or study of fundamental rules or laws. Example: Lawyers who have studied mathematics can analyze legal principles in a unique way.

27. Conduct experiments: To carry out tests or trials to gather information. Example: The book encourages readers to conduct experiments while studying mathematical concepts.

28. Reveal: To make known or disclose something. Example: The author wants to reveal not only fascinating discoveries but also the reasoning behind them.

29. Bridging the gap: Closing or overcoming a significant difference or separation. Example: The author hopes this book will help bridge the gap between the humanities and the sciences.

30. Pioneer of sustainable farming: Someone who leads the way in adopting and promoting sustainable farming practices. Example: Hunt and Lipo argue that the prehistoric Rapanui were pioneers of sustainable farming on Easter Island.

ACADEMIC READING TEST-4

PASSAGE-1

Research using twins

1. Biomedical: Relating to the application of the principles of the natural sciences, especially biology and physiology, to clinical medicine. Example: Biomedical researchers use various methods to study human health.

2. Untangle: To separate and understand the complexities of a situation. Example: Twins offer a precious opportunity to untangle the influence of genes and the environment.

3. Virtually: Almost entirely; nearly. Example: Identical twins share virtually the same genetic code.

4. Environmental factors: External elements or conditions that impact an organism. Example: Differences in skin appearance between twins can be attributed to environmental factors like sun exposure.

5. Fraternal twins: Twins who come from separate eggs and share, on average, half their DNA. Example: Studying fraternal twins helps researchers measure the role of inheritance in our lives.

6. Quantify: To express or measure the quantity of something. Example: Researchers quantify the impact of genes on our lives through twin studies.

7. Ailment: A minor illness or physical disorder. Example: If identical twins are more similar in terms of an ailment than fraternal twins, it suggests a genetic influence.

8. Heredity: The passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically from one generation to another. Example: Understanding heredity is crucial in studying the interplay of nature and nurture.

9. Coin the phrase: To create or introduce a new word or expression. Example: Francis Galton coined the phrase 'nature and nurture' in 1875.

10. Identical twins: Twins that come from a single fertilized egg that splits into two. Example: The Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart focused on identical twins separated at birth.

11. Surprising twist: An unexpected or surprising turn of events. Example: The study of separated identical twins in the 1980s took a surprising twist in our understanding of genetics.

12. Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart: A research project led by Thomas Bouchard, studying identical twins separated at birth and reunited as adults. Example: The Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart involved over 137 sets of twins.

13. Mountain of data: A large and extensive amount of information. Example: Researchers collected a mountain of data from the twins in the Minnesota Study.

14. Statistical concept: A mathematical principle or idea used in statistical analysis. Example: The key to the researchers' approach was the statistical concept called heritability.

15. Broad terms: In general or without specifying details. Example: Heritability, in broad terms, measures the impact of genetics on traits within a population.

16. Elemental forces: Fundamental or essential factors at work. Example: Nature and nurture are considered elemental forces shaping our lives.

17. Epigenetics: The study of changes in organisms caused by modification of gene expression rather than alteration of the genetic code itself. Example: Epigenetics explores how genes are influenced by environmental factors.

18. Chemical reactions: Processes where substances undergo a transformation. Example: Epigenetic processes involve chemical reactions that impact gene expression.

19. Invisible hand: A metaphorical term for an unseen influence or force. Example: Genetic influence acts as an invisible hand shaping our lives.

20. DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid, a molecule that carries genetic instructions for the development and functioning of living organisms. Example: Our DNA contains the genetic information that defines our traits.

21. Piano keyboard analogy: An analogy comparing DNA to a piano keyboard and genes to keys. Example: Epigenetic processes determine when and how each key (gene) on the DNA piano keyboard can be struck.

22. Strengthened or weakened: Enhanced or diminished in effect. Example: Epigenetic processes can strengthen or weaken the expression of specific genes.

23. Turned on or off: Activated or deactivated in terms of gene expression. Example: Epigenetic processes can turn genes on or off, influencing the development of various body parts.

24. Mechanism: A system or process that produces a particular result. Example: Epigenetics reveals a mechanism by which the environment directly impacts genes.

25. Impact on genes: Influence or effect on the expression and function of genes. Example: Epigenetic changes caused by stress during pregnancy can have a long-term impact on genes.

26. Randomly: In an unpredictable or haphazard manner. Example: Some epigenetic processes appear to occur randomly, influencing gene expression.

27. Guide: To direct or lead in a particular direction. Example: Epigenetic processes guide embryonic cells as they become specialized, such as heart, brain, or liver cells.

28. Geneticist: A scientist who studies genetics, the science of genes and heredity. Example: Danielle Reed, a geneticist, has worked extensively with twins.

29. Hardwired: Innate or fixed from birth; not easily changed. Example: Many things about twins are hardwired and unalterable, reflecting their genetic makeup.

30. Reflective: Thoughtful or contemplative. Example: Twin studies allow us to be more reflective about the interplay of genetics and experience.

31. Written in pencil and pen: Metaphorical terms referring to traits influenced by epigenetics (pencil) and DNA (pen). Example: Nature writes some things in pencil (epigenetics) and some things in pen (DNA).

32. Nature writes, nurture erases: Expresses the idea that genetic traits (nature) are relatively fixed, while environmental influences (nurture) can have a modifying effect. Example: The saying "Nature writes, nurture erases" emphasizes the role of both genetics and environment in shaping individuals.

33. Promises to take our understanding further: Suggests that recent work in epigenetics holds the potential to deepen our knowledge. Example: The latest work in epigenetics promises to take our understanding of genetics and environment even further.

34. DNA examination: The analysis of DNA to understand its structure and functions. Example: Recent advancements in DNA examination have allowed scientists to explore the role of epigenetics.

35. New world: A metaphorical expression for a significantly changed or advanced understanding. Example: Exploring the DNA and epigenetic interactions has opened up a new world in biology.

36. Surge in twin studies: A significant increase or rise in the number of studies involving twins. Example: Thomas Bouchard's work led to a surge in twin studies, deepening our understanding of genetics and environment.

37. Genetic makeup: The specific combination of genes in an individual. Example: Bouchard and his colleagues used data to identify how far twins were affected by their genetic makeup.

38. Field of study: A specific area or discipline of academic research. Example: Epigenetics has become a prominent field of study in understanding gene-environment interactions.

39. Random conclusion: An unexpected or surprising finding that deviates from previous understandings. Example: Twin studies have led scientists to a radical and somewhat random conclusion about the interplay of nature, nurture, and epigenetics.

40. Elemental forces at work: Fundamental factors or influences actively shaping a situation. Example: Nature, nurture, and epigenetics are considered elemental forces at work in determining our traits.

41. Elemental forces at work: Fundamental factors or influences actively shaping a situation. Example: Nature, nurture, and epigenetics are considered elemental forces at work in determining our traits.

42. Third component: The third factor or element in addition to nature and nurture, referring to epigenetics. Example: Epigenetics is described as a 'third component' influencing how genes are expressed.

43. Elemental forces at work: Fundamental factors or influences actively shaping a situation. Example: Nature, nurture, and epigenetics are considered elemental forces at work in determining our traits.

44. Impact of genetics on traits: The effect of genetic factors on observable characteristics or behaviors. Example: The Minnesota Study aimed to understand the impact of genetics on various traits in separated identical twins.

45. Hardwired: Innate or fixed from birth; not easily changed. Example: Many things about twins are hardwired and unalterable, reflecting their genetic makeup.

46. Interplay of nature and nurture: The complex interaction between genetic influences (nature) and environmental influences (nurture). Example: Twin studies have been crucial to understanding the interplay of nature and nurture in shaping personalities and behavior.

47. Genetic traits: Characteristics or features determined by an individual's genetic makeup. Example: Epigenetic processes can modify the expression of genetic traits, influencing how they manifest.

48. Epigenetic changes: Alterations in gene expression caused by external factors without modifying the underlying genetic code. Example: Epigenetic changes due to stress during pregnancy can have long-lasting effects on offspring.

49. Deepen our knowledge: To enhance or expand our understanding. Example: Recent studies in epigenetics have deepened our knowledge of how genes and the environment interact.

50. Role of genetics and experience: The combined influence of genetic factors and life experiences in shaping an individual. Example: Twin studies allow us to explore the role of genetics and experience in the development of traits and behaviors.

PASSAGE-2

An Introduction to Film Sound

1. Underestimate: To undervalue or not fully grasp the significance of something. Example: It's a mistake to underestimate the importance of film sound in enhancing the viewer's experience.

2. Emphases: Special importance or significance placed on certain aspects. Example: The three tracks of the sound track must be mixed to produce the necessary emphases for desired effects.

3. Physiognomy: Facial features and expressions, especially when considered as indicative of character. Example: When voice textures fit the performer's physiognomy and gestures, a realistic persona emerges.

4. Banal: Lacking in originality; commonplace or dull. Example: In the science-fiction film 2001, much of the dialogue was banal and of little intrinsic interest.

5. Inadequacy: Lack of quality or capability; insufficiency. Example: The film 2001 portrayed the inadequacy of human responses compared with the magnificent technology created by man.

6. Frenetic: Fast-paced, energetic, and frantic. Example: The comedy Bringing Up Baby presents practically non-stop dialogue at a frenetic pace.

7. Escapism: The tendency to seek distraction and relief from unpleasant realities, especially by seeking entertainment or engaging in fantasy. Example: The film Bringing Up Baby provides pure escapism through its fast-paced dialogue.

8. Synchronous: Happening or existing at the same time and in correlation with what is seen. Example: Synchronous sound effects in a film match the actions on the screen, enhancing realism.

9. Ominous: Giving the impression that something bad or unpleasant is going to happen. Example: The increase in volume of an opening door's 'click' can create an ominous atmosphere in a film.

10. Nuance: A subtle difference or distinction in meaning, expression, or sound. Example: Asynchronous sound effects provide emotional nuances in a film, adding depth to the narrative.

11. Psychic: Relating to the mind or mental processes. Example: The asynchronous ambulance siren underscores the psychic injury incurred in the arguing couple's scene.

12. Ubiquitous: Present, appearing, or found everywhere. Example: Background music in films has become so ubiquitous that its absence is noticeable.

13. Dissonant: Lacking harmony or agreement; discordant. Example: Dissonant music in a film may indicate an approaching menace or disaster.

14. Foreshadows: Serves as a warning or indication of a future event. Example: Background music may foreshadow a change in mood in a film.

15. Salient: Most noticeable or important. Example: Background music linked to a character may remind the audience of salient motifs or ideas.

16. Conventions: Established customs or practices in a particular field. Example: Film sound comprises both conventions and innovations that shape the viewer's experience.

17. Subtle: Delicate, elusive, not obvious. Example: The effects of film sound are often subtle, influencing the viewer's experience on a subconscious level.

18. Foster: To promote or encourage the development of something. Example: We need to foster an awareness of film sound to truly appreciate the art form.

19. Ubiquitous: Found or existing everywhere. Example: Background music in films has become so ubiquitous that its absence is noticeable.

20. Intrinsically: Inherently, fundamentally, relating to the essential nature of something. Example: Much of the dialogue in the film 2001 was banal and of little intrinsic interest.

21. Motifs: Recurring thematic elements or patterns. Example: Background music may repeat a particular theme to remind the audience of motifs or ideas.

22. Sprang to life: Emerged or came into existence. Example: Film, as an art form, sprang to life during the twentieth century, evolving with technological advancements.

23. Twentieth century: The historical period from 1901 to 2000. Example: Film, as an art form, experienced significant growth and development during the twentieth century.

24. Texture: The characteristic quality of a performer's voice, contributing to the portrayal of a character. Example: The texture of a performer's voice enhances the realism of the character on screen.

25. Merge: To blend or combine seamlessly. Example: In film, the actor's personality may seem to merge with the character, creating a realistic persona.

26. Persona: The image or personality that a person presents to the world. Example: When voice textures fit gestures and physiognomy, a realistic persona emerges in film.

27. Portray: To depict or represent through visuals or descriptions. Example: The film portrays the inadequacy of human responses in comparison to technological marvels.

28. Undertone: An underlying or implied quality or feeling. Example: Asynchronous sound effects often add an undertone of emotion, enriching the film's narrative.

29. Atmosphere: The emotional or mood-related quality of a place or situation. Example: Synchronous sounds contribute to the realistic atmosphere of a film.

30. Subconsciously: Without conscious awareness. Example: The effects of sound in film are often noted subconsciously, influencing the viewer's experience.

31. Breakneck speed: Extremely fast or at a rapid pace. Example: The comedy Bringing Up Baby presents practically non-stop dialogue delivered at breakneck speed.

32. Catch up: To follow or understand a narrative or plot. Example: The audience is caught up in the whirlwind of activity, managing to follow the plot in Bringing Up Baby.

33. Repeated: Recurring or occurring again. Example: Background music may be repeated at various points to link scenes and reinforce motifs.

34. Menace: A threat or indication of harm. Example: Dissonant music in a film may indicate an approaching menace or disaster.

35. Disaster: A sudden and widespread catastrophe. Example: Dissonant music may foreshadow an imminent disaster in a film.

36. Absence: The state of being away or not present. Example: Background music in films has become so ubiquitous that its absence is noticeable.

37. Noteworthy: Worthy of attention or notice. Example: The effects of sound are often noteworthy, subtly influencing the viewer's perception.

38. Thorough: Complete or comprehensive. Example: The decision to salvage the Mary Rose was made only when a thorough examination deemed it feasible.

39. Art Form: A medium of artistic expression. Example: Film is considered an art form that emerged and evolved during the twentieth century.

40. Shape: To influence or give form to something. Example: Conventions and innovations in film sound shape the overall viewer experience.

41. Ever-present: Always existing or occurring. Example: Background music in films has become ever-present, adding emotion and rhythm.

42. Unobtrusive: Not noticeable or intrusive. Example: Background music is often meant to be unobtrusive, providing tone or emotional attitude without drawing attention.

43. Acknowledge: To recognize or accept the existence of something. Example: Asynchronous sounds acknowledge the film's city setting and contribute to its realism.

44. Engage: To involve or participate actively. Example: Increasing the volume of an ominous sound helps engage the audience in a moment of suspense.

45. Crucial: Extremely important or necessary. Example: Dr. Margaret Rule played a crucial role as the Archaeological Director of The Mary Rose Trust.

46. Innovative: Introducing new ideas or methods. Example: Film sound comprises both conventions and innovative approaches that contribute to the overall experience.

47. Sprang to life: Emerged or came into existence. Example: Film, as an art form, sprang to life during the twentieth century, evolving with technological advancements.

48. Twentieth century: The historical period from 1901 to 2000. Example: Film, as an art form, experienced significant growth and development during the twentieth century.

49. Growth: The process of increasing in size or quantity. Example: Film underwent significant growth and evolution during the twentieth century.

50. Evolution: The gradual development or change over time. Example: The evolution of film as an art form includes advancements in technology and storytelling techniques.

PASSAGE-3

‘This Marvellous Invention’

1. Mankind: The human race collectively; humanity. Example: Language is considered one of mankind's greatest achievements.

2. Transform: To change in form or appearance. Example: Inventions like the wheel and agriculture transformed human existence.

3. Unparalleled: Having no equal; unmatched. Example: Language is crucial for humanity's unparalleled power over other animals.

4. Ingenious: Clever, original, and inventive. Example: The idea of language is described as ingenious simplicity in the passage.

5. Hymns of praise: Expressions of admiration and worship. Example: The passage mentions hymns of praise for the magnificence of language.

6. Incongruity: Lack of harmony or agreement. Example: The incongruity lies in the fact that language, considered an invention, was never actually invented.

7. Crafted: Created or made with skill and artistry. Example: Language often appears skillfully crafted, like the work of a master craftsman.

8. Measly: Insignificant or small in amount. Example: Language makes much out of seemingly measly morsels of sound.

9. Configurations: Arrangements or forms. Example: The configurations of sounds in language can express a variety of meanings.

10. Spits and splutters: Random, unintelligible noises. Example: Individual sounds like p, f, b, etc., may seem like spits and splutters on their own.

11. Machine: A system or structure with moving parts that perform a task. Example: The language machine arranges sounds to convey meaning.

12. Stream of air: Continuous flow of air. Example: Language transforms streams of air into meaningful expressions.

13. Deceptive: Giving an impression that is misleading or false. Example: The apparent ease of language is deceptive, hiding its complexities.

14. Triumphs: Great victories or achievements. Example: The triumphs of language are usually taken for granted in everyday life.

15. Resourcefulness: The ability to find quick and clever ways to overcome difficulties. Example: Language showcases resourcefulness in tying sounds together.

16. Exertion: Physical or mental effort. Example: Despite its achievements, language seems to operate without the slightest exertion.

17. Estrangement: Feeling of being foreign or unfamiliar. Example: Estrangement of foreign tongues highlights the wonder of language.

18. Exotic: Unusual, foreign, or strikingly different. Example: Foreign languages with exotic features can make us appreciate the complexity of language.

19. Breath-breaking: Extremely long or impressive. Example: Some languages can create breath-breaking words with astonishing length.

20. Monstrosity: Something extremely large or ugly. Example: The Turkish word with breath-breaking length might seem like a linguistic monstrosity.

21. Colossus: Something of great size or importance. Example: Sumerian words, though not in length, exhibit linguistic colossus through their compactness.

22. Trim: Neat, orderly, or well-proportioned. Example: Sumerian words may seem trim compared to Turkish colossi.

23. Compactness: Being tightly and efficiently packed. Example: The compactness of Sumerian construction allowed single sounds to convey information.

24. Pronoun: A word that takes the place of a noun. Example: In the Sumerian word, there is no equivalent to the English pronoun 'it.'

25. Empty slot: A space or position left vacant. Example: The Sumerian word utilizes an empty slot to convey meaning.

26. Fine-tuned: Carefully adjusted or calibrated. Example: The technology of language is described as fine-tuned in the passage.

27. Nifty: Clever, ingenious, or skillful. Example: The contraption of language is described as a nifty creation.

28. Contraption: A device or machine, especially one that is strange or complicated. Example: Language is referred to as a contraption due to its intricate design.

29. Design: The arrangement or plan forming the structure of something. Example: The passage emphasizes the design and structure of language.

30. Articulate: Expressing oneself clearly and effectively. Example: Language allows individuals to articulate their thoughts and feelings.

31. Disclose: To make known or reveal. Example: Language enables us to disclose our thoughts and share our secrets with others.

32. Penetrate: To understand or perceive deeply. Example: Language allows us to penetrate the depths of our own minds and those of others.

33. Evoke: To bring out or elicit emotions or memories. Example: Language has the power to evoke a wide range of emotions through words.

34. Unravel: To understand or solve something complex. Example: Language can unravel the mysteries of the universe through its expressions.

35. Exotic features: Unusual or distinctive characteristics. Example: Foreign languages with exotic features can be both fascinating and challenging.

36. Documentation: The process of recording or preserving information. Example: Sumerian, the language of the inventors of writing, enabled the documentation of history.

37. Pronoun 'it': A linguistic element representing an object or thing. Example: In the Sumerian word, there is no specific component corresponding to the pronoun 'it.'

38. Nothingness: The state of being nothing or having no existence. Example: The Sumerian word incorporates a specific kind of nothingness in its construction.

39. Contradiction: A combination of statements that oppose each other. Example: The apparent contradiction in the passage is that language is both mankind's greatest invention and was never invented.

40. Essence: The fundamental nature or quality of something. Example: The French grammarians distilled the essence of language in 1660.

41. Homage: Respect or reverence paid. Example: The passage refers to hymns of praise as homage to the accomplishment of language.

42. Magnitude: Greatness in size or significance. Example: The passage eloquently celebrates the magnitude of language's achievement.

43. Compact Construction: The design characterized by efficiency and neatness. Example: Sumerian words showcase compact construction, conveying specific meanings with minimal elements.

44. Subtle Senses: Delicate or nuanced meanings. Example: Language allows the expression of subtle senses, making communication rich and varied.

45. Foreign Tongs: Languages from different cultures or regions. Example: The wonder of language becomes apparent through the estrangement of foreign tongues.

46. Take for Granted: To accept without thinking or considering. Example: The triumphs of language are often taken for granted in everyday life.

47. Tie Together: To connect or link in a cohesive manner. Example: Language allows individuals to tie together seemingly meaningless sounds into meaningful expressions.

48. Pre-modern Foragers: People who hunt and gather in a time before modern civilization. Example: The language machine operates for everyone, from pre-modern foragers to post-modern philosophers.

49. Post-modern Philosophers: Intellectual thinkers in the contemporary era characterized by skepticism. Example: Language allows post-modern philosophers to express complex ideas in seemingly effortless ways.

50. Victim of Its Own Success: Something that suffers negative consequences due to its own achievements. Example: The passage suggests that language is a victim of its own success because its triumphs are often overlooked in everyday life.

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